Gebruiker:Erik Zachte/Alebrije

Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie
Animation clip (in Spanish) about alebrijes made by the Popular Art Museum (Mexico City) in collaboration with Wiki Learning, Tec de Monterrey
Alebrijes at the Pochote Market in the city of Oaxaca

Alebrijes zijn fel gekleurde beelden van fantastische wezens uit de Oaxaca-Mexicaanse volkskunst.

De eerste alebrijes zijn, net als de term, bedacht door Pedro Linares. Ergens in de jaren 30 werd Linares ernstig ziek, en toen hij buiten kennis in bed lag, droomde Linares van een vreemde plek, die op een bos leek. Hij zag er bomen, dieren, rotsen en wolken, die plots in iets vreemds veranderden, in dieren, maar wel onbekende dieren. Hij zag een ezel met de vleugels van een vlinder, een haan met de hoorns van een stier, een leeuw met de kop van een adelaar en alle dieren riepen hetzelfde woord: "Alebrijes". Nadat Linares hersteld was, ging hij de wezens opnieuw uitbeelden in karton en papier-maché en noemde hij ze alebrijes.

Zijn werk trok de aandacht van een galleriehouder in Cuernavaca, in het zuiden van Mexico en later ook van de kunstenaars Diego Rivera en Frida Kahlo. In de jaren 80 organiseerde de Britse cineaste Judith Bronowski een reizende tentoonstelling annex workshop over Mexicaanse handwerk in de VS, met daarin werk van Pedro Linares, Manuel Jiménez en textiel handwerker Maria Sabina from Oaxaca. Alhoewel de vallei van Oaxaca al een traditie had om dieren en andere figuren uit hout te snijden, was de workshop van Bronowski de eerste keer dat handwerkslieden uit Oaxaca kennismaakten met de alebrijes uit papier maché. Bij familiebezoeken liet Linares zijn creaties zien, die inmiddels uit hout gesneden werden van een plaatselijke boom, de copal, een type hout waar men magische eigenschappen aan toekent.

Manuel Jiménez, inwoner van Arrazola, stapte als eerste over van papier-maché naar bewerkt hout. Deze versie van het handwerk heeft zich vervolgens over een aantal steden verspreid, met name San Martín Tilcajete en La Unión Tejalapan, en werd een belangrijke bron van inkomsten voor het gebied, vooral voor Tilcajete. Het succes van het handwerk leidde echter tot de sterke afname in het aantal kopal bomen. Pogingen om via herbebossing iets aan dit probleem te doen, alsook toezicht op wilde kopal bomen, had slechts beperkt resultaat. De drie steden die het meest verweven zijn met de productie van alebrije hebben een aantal bekende kunstenaars voortgebracht, zoals Manuel Jiménez, Jacobo Angeles, Martin Sandiego, Julia Fuentes and Miguel Sandiego.

Pedro Linares werd geboren op 29 juni 1906, in Mexico-Stad, en bleef daar wonen tot zijn dood, op 25 januari 1992.

Oorspronkelijke alebrijes[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In een werkplaats bij het Museum van Volkskunst in Mexico-stad wordt gewerkt aan een alebrije van papier-maché.
Alebrije, met als titel 'Michin Rojo', als eerbetoon aan Pedro Linares

De eerste alebrijes werden in 1936[1] gemaakt door Pedro Linares, een handwerker uit Mexico-Stad (Federaal District), die was gespecialiseerd in Piñatas, carnavalsmaskers en “Judas” beelden van papier-maché, die hij verkocht op markten zoals die in La Merced.[2][3][4]

In 1936, toen Linares 30 jaar was, werd hij ziek en kreeg hoge koorts di egepard gind met hallucinaties. In zijn koortsdromen bevond hij zich in een bos, met rotsen en wolken erboven, die vaak veranderden in wilde, onnnatuurlijk gekleurde wezens, vaak met vleugels, hoorns, staarten, vervaarlijke tanden en uitpuilende ogen. Tegelijk hoorde hij een groot aantal stemmen die steeds maar het woord "alebrije" riepen. Nadat Linares hersteld was begon hij de wezens die hij gezien had na te maken van papier-maché en karton

[2][3][5]. Het werk werd opgemerkt door Diego Rivera en Frida Kahlo, die Linares opdracht gaven meer alebrijes te maken. [3] De traditie groeide aanzienlijk toen cineaste Judith Bronowski's in 1975 een documentaire over Linares maakte. In 1990, twee jaar voor zijn dood, ontving Pedro Linares de prijs voor Mexico's Kunsten en Wetenschappen, in de categorie volkskunst en tradities.[3][6] Dit inspireerde andere makers van alebrijes, en Linares’ work kreeg meer prijzen in Mexico en daarbuiten. Rivera stelde dat niemand anders de vreemde wezens had kunnen maken. Werk dat Linares in opdracht van rivera maakte wordt nu getoond in het Anahuacalli Museum in Mexico-Stad.[6]

De nazaten van Pedro Linares, waarvan velen in Mexico-Stad wonen vlak bij de Sonora Markt, zetten de traditie voort om alebrijes en andere wezens uit karton en papier-mâché te maken.[6] Onder hun klanten waren the Rolling Stones and David Copperfield. The Stones kochten niet alleen alebrijes maar gaven de familie ook vrijkartjes voor hun concert. [7] Verschillende takken van de familie wonen bij elkaar in een straat. Elke familie werkt in een eigen werkplaats, maar bij grote opdrachten werkt men samen. De vraag varieert. Soms is er geen werk; soms werkt met 18 uur per dag.[7]

De oorspronkelijke ontwerpen van Pedro Linares vallen nu in het publieke domein. Echter, volgens Chapter Three van de federale Mexicaanse wet op het copyright, uit 1996 is het niet toegestaan om handwerk uit Mexico te verkopen zonder recht te doen aan de gemeenschap en de regio waar het handwerk vandaan komt. Het is ook niet toegestaan het poduct zo te veranderen dat dit schade toebrengt aan het imago van de cultuur. Deze wet strekt zich zowel uit tot de vercommercialisering van de beelden, als hun vertoning in the openbaar. In de praktijk wordt zelden een beroep gedaan op deze wet omdat de meeste handwerkslieden niet aangeven uit welke regio hun werk komt. De familie stipuleert dat op beelden die niet door hen vervaardigd zijn en die niet uit Mexico-Stad komen dit aangegeven moet worden.[8] De Linares familie exporteert hun werk naar de belangrijkste gallerieen, en geeft daarmee wereldwijd bekendheid aan Mexicaanse kunst.[6] Een voorbeeld van zo'n expositie was "Beesten en Beenderen: het kartonmetier van de familie Linares". De tentoonstelling toonde zo'n 70 werken en moest vanwege grote belangstelling met weken verlengd worden. [9]

Er zijn nu diverse stijlen van alebrijes, en het handwerk behoort nu het repertoire van de Mexicaanse volkskunst.[2] Elke alebrije is uniek.[6] Buiten de familie Linares is een va bekendste kunstenaars Susana Buyo. Zij leerde het werken met karton en papier-maché in een van de werkplaatsen van de Linares familie. [6] De kinderen van Condesa, een van de betere wijken in Mexico-Stad, kennen haar als de "vrouw met de monsters". Ze komt oorsponkelijk uit Argentie, maar is genaturaliseerd tot Mexicaanse. Haar werk verschilt van dat van Linares in hoe zij vaak menselijke gedaantes uitbeeldt die vaak eerder teder dan afschrikwekkend zijn. Ook maakt ze gebruik van andere dan de traditionele materialen, zoals veren, namaakstenen en moderne harsen.[6]

'Don Quixote', door Guadalupe Posada

Pedro Linares verwees naar zijn dromen als oorsprong voor de alebrijes, maar ze ontstonden niet in een vacuum. Er zijn overeenkomsten tussen deze nieuwe wezens en diverse bovennatuurlijke wezens uit Mexico's inheemse kunst en de Europese geschiedenis. Nog voor de Spaanse overheersing had men al een voorkeur voor beelden met felle kleuren, die vaak fantasierijk en macaber waren.[1][6] Er zijn ook invloeden afkomstig uit Chinatown in Mexico-Stad (vooral draken) en afbeeldingen uit de gotiek, vooral van waterspuwers. [10] Beelden van rood karton ('judas' geheten), die Linares maakte worden nog steeds gemaakt, en verbrand, in Mexico tijdens zuiveringsrituelen. [6] Meer recente invloeden kwamen van Mexicaanse kunstenaars Julio Ruelas en José Guadalupe Posada, die beide fantasierijke en soms afschrikwekkende beelden schiepen.[11] Inmiddels hebben de alebrijes, en vooral de monsterlijke versies, de reputatie om slechte geesten te verjagen, en een huis te kunnen beschermen.[1][7] Sommige vervaardigers, zoals meester-handwerksman Christian David Mendez, beweren dat een zekere mystiek komt kijken bij het maken van de beelden, waarbij delen van sommige dieren menselijke eigenschappen symboliseren.[12]

Monumentale alebrije, met als titel 'La Urbe', in het Zocalo van Mexico-Stad, tijdens de Parade van 2009.

Meer recent ontstond de jaarlijks Monumentale Alebrije Parade, die isnds 2007 gesponsord wordt door het Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico-Stad. In de parade van 2009 waren meer dan 130 heel grote alebrijes, vervaardigd uit hout, karton, papier-maché en metaaldraad en andere materialen, en de optocht wordt elk jaar groter, onderdeel van de stoet zijn bands die populaire Mexicaanse muziek spelen. Na de parade worden de beelden voor twee weken opgesteld op de Paseo de la Reforma voor jurering en het publiek.[13]

Alebrijes of Oaxaca[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Alebrije 'El Ciclo de Oaxaca', door Jacobo en Maria Angeles, te bezichtigen in het Museo Estatal de Artes Populares de Oaxaca in San Bartolo Coyotepec.

Development of the craft in Oaxaca[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

'Vlinderman' door Francisca Calva of Oaxaca

Many rural households in the Mexican state of Oaxaca have prospered over the past three decades through the sale of brightly painted, whimsical wood carvings they call alebrijes to international tourists and the owners of ethnic arts shops in the United States, Canada, and Europe.[14] What are called “alebrijes” in Oaxaca is a marriage of native woodcarving traditions and influence from Pedro Linares’ work in Mexico City.[15]

Pedro Linares was originally from México City (Distrito Federal). In the 1980s, British Filmmaker, Judith Bronowski, arranged an itinerant demonstration workshop in U.S.A. participating Pedro Linares, Manuel Jiménez and a textil artisan Maria Sabina from Oaxaca. Although the Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, it was at this time, when Bronowski's workshop took place when artisans from Oaxaca knew the alebrijes paper mache sculptures. Then Linares’ designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called copal. The Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, and Linares’ designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called copal. This adaptation was pioneered by Arrazola native Manuel Jiménez. This version of the craft has since spread to a number of other towns, most notably San Martín Tilcajete and La Unión Tejalapan, become a major source of income for the area, especially for Tilcajete. The success of the craft, however, has led to the depletion of the native copal trees. Attempts to remedy this, with reforestation efforts and management of wild copal trees has only had limited success. The three towns most closely associated with alebrije production in Oaxaca have produced a number of notable artisans such as Manuel Jiménez, Jacobo Angeles, Martin Sandiego, Julia Fuentes and Miguel Sandiego. One of the most important things about the fantastical creatures carved of wood is that every piece is removable, it's how you can tell you have a piece carved by one of the original great carvers. The later carvers didn't learn the technique of making each piece fit so well that it could be removed and put back in again and again. Those pieces have more than tripled in value. The painting on these figures is also more intense and varied. The first to copy the fantastic forms and bright colors was Manuel Jiménez, who carved the figures in local copal wood rather than using paper.[16] Animal figures had always been carved in the central valleys area of Oaxaca by the Zapotecs since the pre-Hispanic period. Totems of local animals were carved for luck or religious purposes as well as hunting decoys. Figures were also carved for children as toys, a tradition that continued well into the 20th century.[17] After the craft became popular in Arrazola, it spread to Tilcajete and from there to a number of other communities, and now the three main communities are, San Antonino Arrazola, San Martin Tilcajete and La Union Tejalapam, each of which has developed its own style.[16][18] The carving of wood figures did not have a name,[16] so the name “alebrije” eventually became adopted for any carved, brightly colored figure of copal wood, whether it is of a real animal or not.[19][20] To make the distinction, the carvings of fantastic creatures, closer to Linares’ alebrijes, are now sometimes called “marcianos” (lit. Martians) .[20] Oaxacan alebrijes have eclipsed the Mexico City version, with a large number of stores in and around the city of Oaxaca selling the pieces,[21] and it is estimated that more than 150 families in the same area make a living making the figures.[17]

Woodcarving, along with other crafts in Oaxaca, grew in importance as the state opened up to tourism. This started in the 1940s with the Pan-American Highway and has continued to this day with the construction of more roads, airports and other transportation coincided with the rising prosperity of the U.S. and Canada making Mexico an affordable exotic vacation. Oaxacan woodcarving began to be bought in the 1960s by hippies.[17] Prior to the 1980s, most of the woodcarvings were natural and spiritual world of the communities, featuring farm animals, farmers, angels and the like.[14] These pieces, now referred to as "rustic" (nistico), were carved and painted in a simple manner.[20] Later known for their alebrijes, carvers such as Manuel Jimenez of Arrazola, Isadoro Cruz of Tilcajete and Martin Sandiego of La Union began by carving animals as youths, often while doing other chores such as tending sheep. By the 1960s and 1970s, these carvers had enough of a reputation to sell their work in the city of Oaxaca.[18] As more dealers shipping to other parts of Mexico and abroad visited the rural villages, more exotic animals such as lions, elephants and the like were added, and eventually came to dominate the trade.[16][20] Eventually, traditional paints gave way to acrylics as well.[20] Another development that encouraged woodcarving were artisans’ contests held by the state of Oaxaca in the 1970s, which encouraged carvers to try new ideas in order to win prizes and sell their pieces to state museums.[20]

Manuel Jimenez met een van zijn creaties

In the 1970s and early 1980s, carvers in the three villages sold their pieces mostly to store owners in Oaxaca, with only one carver, Manuel Jimenez, carving full-time. Most other carvers used the craft to supplement incomes from farming and wage labor. It was also considered to be a male occupation.[20] In the mid-1980s, the influence of the Linares alebrijes was becoming popular and wholesalers and store owners from the United States, began to deal with artisans in Oaxaca directly. The desire of the foreign merchants for non-indigenous animals and the newly popular alebrijes had an impact on the market.[16][20] By 1990, woodcarving had begun to boom with most households in Arrazola and Tilcajete earning at least part of their income from the craft. La Union was less successful in attracting dealers and tourists.[20] The boom had a dramatic economic impact, shifting the economies of Arrazola and Tilcajete away from farming and towards carving.[19] It also affected the carvings that were being produced. Carvings became more complicated and paintings more ornate as families competed against each other.[14] Specialization also occurred with neophyte carvers looking for a niche to compete with already established carvers.[20] The craft continued to become established in the 1990s as more families carved and more tourists came to Oaxaca with the building of new roads.[17] Some of these new Oaxacan crafters have extended the design to smooth - abstract painted realistic animals, especially the Mendoza family (Luis Pablo, David Pablo and Moises Pablo a.k.a. Ariel Playas), creating a new generation of alebrijes.

While the sales trend has been mostly positive for Oaxacan alebrijes, it is dependent on global market fluctuations and on tourism to Oaxaca.[2] There was a decline in sales in the late 1980s, possibly due to global market saturation and the dominance of repetitive, unimaginative designs. Sales rose again in the 1990s.[16] Sales fell again in 2001, when tourism from the U.S. fell[2] and fell again precipitously 2006 due to statewide social unrest. It has not fully recovered since.[19]

The alebrije market is divided into two levels, the production of unique, high-quality, labor-intensive pieces and the production of repetitive, average quality and inexpensive pieces. Those who have produced exceptionally fine pieces have gained reputations as artists, commanding high prices.[22] Larger pieces are generally made only by the better carving families.[20] While pieces can be bought and ordered from the artisans directly, most sell to middlemen who in turn sell them to outlets in Mexico and abroad.[2] The most successful carving families sell almost exclusively to dealers and may have only a few pieces available for the drop-in visitor. .[23] Within Mexico, Oaxacan alebrijes are often sold in tourist locations such as Oaxaca city, La Paz, Cancún, Cozumel and Puerto Escondido .[16] Most pieces sold internationally go to the United States, Canada, Europe and Japan, where the most expensive pieces end up in ethnic craft stores in urban areas, university towns and upscale resorts.[14][16][24] Cheaper pieces tend to be sold at trade shows and gift shops.[14] Tourists who buy pieces directly from carvers pay about twice what wholesalers do. .[25] The price of each piece depends on the quality, coloring, size, originality and sometimes the reputation of the carver. The most expensive pieces are most often sent abroad.[16] Pieces sold retail in Oaxaca generally range from $1 to $200 USD.[23] The most commercialized figures are those of dogs, armadillos, iguanas, giraffes, cats, elephants, zebras, deer, dolphins, sharks and fish.[16] Animals are often painted with bright colors and designs and carved with exaggerated features that bear little resemblance to what occurs in the natural world. Anthropomorphism is common and carvings of animals playing musical instruments, golfing, fishing, and engaging in other human pursuits are very popular.[20] Fantastic creatures such as dragons and chimeras and others are also carved,[16] even carvings of Benito Juárez, Subcomandante Marcos, chupacabras (imaginary beings that eat goats), "Martians," mermaids, and helicopters. The diversity of the figures is due to a segmented market both in Mexico and abroad which rewards novelty and specialization.[20] In a number of cases, carvings return to images from Mexican culture such as angels, saints, and Virgins, which will have somber faces even if they are painted in very bright colors. Devils and skeletons are often parts of more festive scenes depicting them, for example, riding dogs and drinking.[20] Foreign customers demand more creative figures with little repetition. Prices abroad range from between three to five times the retail price in Oaxaca, with a median of $100 USD, with lowest usually around $10 and highest around $2,000.[19] One of the most expensive pieces sold from a carving village occurred in 1995, when a doctor from Mexico City paid Isidro Cruz of Tilcajete the equivalent of $3000 USD for a piece entitled “Carousel of the Americas.” This piece took Cruz three months to complete.[20] Typical household income of families from Arrazola and Tilcajete averages about $2000USD per year, but exceptional artists can earn up to $20,000 per year.[23][24] Two thousand a year is substantially more than average in Oaxaca and allows families to build or expand housing and send children to secondary school. However, most families carve as a sideline with agriculture providing basic staples.[23] In some towns, especially in Tilcajete, the economy has shifted from agriculture to the making of wood carvings with a number of families abandoning farming altogether.[16] However, for most households in Oaxaca, the success of alebrijes has not replaced the need to farm or to alleviated the need to send family members to Mexico City or to the United States and work and send remittances back home.[2][18]

Despite Oaxaca’s reputation for the production of crafts by indigenous peoples, alebrije makers are monolingual Spanish speakers who generally do not identify themselves as a member of an indigenous group although almost all have Zapotec ancestors. The alebrijes are considered to be novelty items for the makers rather than expressions of a cultural heritage. .[14][18] More traditional woodcarving, such as utensils, toys, religious figures and the like are still made by older residents, but these crafts are overshadowed by alebrijes.[16] Approximately 150 families now devote themselves at least part-time to the making of alebrijes, with carving techniques being passed down from generation to generation and many children growing up around fantastic figures both finished and in process.[16]

Due to copies from other places, a certification scheme is being considered to ensure the viability of crafts from this area. That would include educating consumers and working with reputable stores.[26]

Houtbewerking[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Vrouw schuurt een nieuwe alebrije, in San Martin Tilcajete

Het snijden van een figuur, wat wordt gedaan als het hout nog nat is, kan enkele uren tot een maand in beslag nemen, afhankelijk van de grootte en de detaillering.[17] Vaak zal het stuk hout dat gebruikt wordt het eindresultaat mede bepalen, enerzijds vanwege de vorm van dat stuk hout, anderzijds omdat mannelijke en vrouwelijke bomen verschillen in vorm en hardheid.[15][17] Voor het snijden van het hout wordt handgereedschap gebruikt, zoals machetes (kapmessen), beitels en messen. Het enige wat machinaal gebeurt is het afzagen van een blok van een stam of tak met een kettingzaag.[17] De basisvorm wordt vaak uit het blok gehakt met een machete, daarna wordt de definitieve vorm gesneden met diverse messen. [16] Details zoals oren, staarten en vleugels worden vaak uit aparte stukken hout gesneden.[27]

Na het snijden wordt het hout te drogen gelegd, dit kan tot wel tien maanden duren, afhankelijk van de omvang en dikte. Half-tropisch hout als kopal is vatbaar voor aantasting door insekten, enom die reden worden de stukken vaak in benzine gedompeld, en soms verhit, zodat alle insekteneitjes gedood worden.[17][28] Tijdens het droogproces kunnen ook breuken in het hout optreden. Deze breuken worden opgevuld met een kleine stukjes kopal, en een mengsel van schuursel en hars. Pas daarna kan het stuk geschilderd worden. [17] Oorspronkelijk werden het hout in Oaxaca beschilderd met aniline verf, waarin natuurlijke bestanddelen gebruikt werden, zoals bast van kopal boom, bakpoeder, limoensap, granaatappelpitten, zink, indigo, huitlacoche en cochenille. Deze kleurstoffen worden ook gebruikt om stoffen te verven, voor ceremoniele beschilderingen, en meer.[17] Na 1985 zijn de meeste handwerkslieden overgestapt op acrylverf, dat kleurechter is en beter bestand is tegen reinigen, al blijven sommigen de anilineverf gebruiken omdat klanten de rustieke uitstraling daarvan waarderen. voor beide soorten verf geldt dat deze meestal in twee lagen wordt opgebracht, met eerst een egale onderlaag, waarop vervolgens een veelkleurig patroon op wordt aangebracht.[16][28]

Oorspronkelijk werd het hele maakproces door 1 persoon uitgevoerd, meestal een man. In de 80er jaren, toen de verkopen stegen, ging men over tot het verdelen van het werk binnen een familie. Vrouwen en kinderen hielpen vaak met schuren en schilderen, zodat mannen nu vaak minder dan de helft van het totale werk voor hun rekening namen. Toch worden de werkstukken vaak nog aan een 1 persoon toegeschreven, meestal de man die het hout bewerkte.[20] Maar er zijn uitzonderingen. Er zijn mannen die beter zijn in schilderen dan in houtsnijden, en in de gemeenschap van San Pedro Taviche, dragen vrouwen gelijk bij aan het verzamelen en snijden van het hout.[28] Meestal gebeurt al het werk binnen de familiekring. Maar soms huren families anderen in als er een grote opdracht ligt, zij het meestal op tijdelijke basis. Sommige families weigeren werk aan derden uit te besteden.[25]

Copal wood[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Een alebrije wordt uit Kopalhout gesneden, in Arrazola.

Almost all alebrije carvers in Oaxaca use the wood of trees from the genus Bursera (Family burseraceae), with a preference for the species B. glabrifolia, which is locally called copal or copalillo. This tree is typically found in dry tropical forests in Oaxaca and neighboring states.[24] The exceptions are Isidro Cruz of Tilcajete, who uses “zompantle” (Erythrina coralloides) and the Manuel Jimenez family, which carves in tropical cedar (Cedrella odorata) imported from Guatemala.[14][20]

Originally, carvers obtained wood from the local forests on their own. Copal trees are short and squat and do not yield much wood; every piece is used. Despite this, the success of woodcarving caused an unsustainable drain on local wild copal, and nearly all of the trees near Tilcajete and Arrazola have disappeared.[16][24] This localized depletion soon gave rise to a copal wood market in Oaxaca, even though many of the copal trees in other parts are of a different subspecies, which has more knots.[14][24] Obtaining wood is a complex exercise because negotiating with other municipalities requires navigating complex social, legal and economic norms, and in many cases, state and federal environmental authorities have stepped in to try to preserve wild copal trees in a number of areas. Some communities have simply refused to sell their wood.[14][27] These difficulties has led to a black market in copal wood, with carvers purchasing most of their supplies from venders called “copaleros.” Harvesting copalillo is not a complex task; trees are relatively small and the wood is soft. Trees are felled using an axe or chainsaw. Branches are cut with machetes.[14] Most harvesting occurs on ejidal (communal) lands. Legal or not, the purchase of copal wood from other parts of Oaxaca is putting unsustainable pressure on wild populations in a wider area, forcing copaleros to go further to obtain wood and often to deal with angry locals and police who alternately seek bribes and enforce the law.[24] Eventually, this led to about only six copaleros which control most of the wood being sold, and these supplies' being unreliable.[14][27] The federal government states that most of the figures are made with illegally obtained wood.[29]

Securing supplies of copal wood is a major concern for woodcarvers. Despite the fact that the cost of the wood is not particularly high, despite the effort,[14] the main issue is reliability.[14][17] Another issue for carvers is quality. Artisans will pay more for their wood only if they are sure they can pass the added cost onto their customers.[14] A number of attempts to grow the trees for woodcarving purpose have been undertaken.[14][16][17] Copal is a native tree species to the area, so it grows readily without much care. It takes anywhere from five to ten years for a tree to grow big enough to be harvested (branches or entire tree).[14][16] Some of the efforts include reforestation efforts sponsored by groups such as the Rodolfo Morales Foundation in Ocotlan, and a number of families spend time planting trees during the rainy season.[17] Some have begun copal plantations. However, current needs for the wood far outweigh what these efforts have been able to produce.[14]

Another effort involves a program designed to manage wild copal supplies in a municipality called San Juan Bautista Jayacatlán. This arrangement has economic advantages for both the alebrije-makers and the owners of the forests where the wood is produced.[14] It has not been developed sufficiently yet to make an impact on the illegal harvest of wood, but its organizers hope that in time, it will become the more economical and preferred method.[26] The difference between this program and others is that this works within the broader ethnobotanical context by promoting the management of the species within its native habitat. Jayacatlán is located next to the recently established biosphere reserve of Tehhuacán-Cuicatlán. The benefit to Jayacatlán is to give the municipality a way to exploit its copal supplies and preserve its biodiversity at the same time. The benefit to carvers is to promote a reliable source of wood, as well as a trademark called “ecoalebrijes” to help them sell more alebrijes at a higher price. However, the wood from Jayacatlan is only sold to Arrazola and not to the other major center of Tilcajete. The enthusiasm of Arrazola’s woodcarvers stems more from having a supply of good wood than from notions of ecology.[14]

San Martin Tilcajete[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Grote alebrije voor een winkel in San Martin Tilcajete

Of the three major carving towns, San Martin Tilcajete has experience the most success.[14] This success is mostly due to carver Isidro Cruz, who learned to carve when he was thirteen during a long illness in the late 1940s. His work was sold locally and eventually noticed by Tonatiúh Gutierrez, the director of expositions for the Mexican National Tourist Council, later a government agency in charge of promoting crafts. He encouraged Cruz to carve masks and later appointed him in charge of a state craft buying center. Cruz worked at this for four years, learning much about craft selling and getting others from Tilcajete connected to the market. Unlike other carvers, Cruz was open about his techniques and by the late 1970s, about ten men were carving and selling in Tilcajete. Cruz not only taught his methods to others, he was able to purchase many of his neighbors’ works.[14][20] Cruz’s efforts stimulated new styles of carving, such as alebrijes, and their sale in the city of Oaxaca.[20] By the 1980s, there were four families devoted to carving full-time, with the rest splitting their time between crafts and agriculture.[22] Through the 1960s and to the 1980s, embroidered shirts, blouses and dresses were still a well-received craft from Tilcajete,[17] but by the end of the 1980s, most families were involved in carving alebrijes.[22]

Today, the carving of alebrijes is the economic base of Tilcajete.[21] Every Friday on the main square is the “tianguis del alebrije” or weekly market selling wooden figures. The event allows visitors to purchase items from local craftsmen directly. There are usually also vendors selling other local products such as ice cream as well.[30] Annually, the municipality holds its Feria del Alebrije (Alebrije Festival), which features alebrije sales and exhibitions, music, dance and theatre. There are also offerings of local and regional cuisine. More than 100 vendors attend, selling alebrijes, textiles, local dishes, artwork and locally made alcoholic beverages.[31][32] It is sponsored by the Master Craftsmen Group of Tilcajete (Grupo de Maestros Talladoes de Tilcajete), which includes Hedilberto Olivera, Emilia Calvo, Roberta Ángeles, Juventino Melchor, Martin Melchor, Margarito Melchor Fuentes, Margarito Melchor Santiago, José Olivera Pérez, Jesús Melchor García, Inocente Vásquez, María Jiménez, Cira Ojeda, Jacobo and María Ángeles, Justo Xuana, Victor Xuana, Rene Xuana, Abad Xuana, Flor and Ana Xuana, Rogelio Alonso, who works in paper maiche and Doris Arellano, who is a painter.[15]

Some of the better known artisans in Tilcajete include Delfino Gutierrez, sisters Ana and Marta Bricia Hernandez, the family of Efrain and Silvia Fuentes, Coindo Melchor, Margarito Melchor and Maria Jimenez. Delfino Gutierrez specializes in free-form elephants, frogs, turtles, armadillos and more[33] which are sold in stores in Chicago, California, New York and Israel.[34] The Hernandez sisters sell primarily from their home and known for their painting style. The Fuentes family gained fame from Efrain’s carving talents. He was featured in an exhibit in Santa Fe, NM when he was only 13 and his work has been featured in at least one book.[21] Margarito Melchor specializes in cats, and Coindo Melchor carves elaborate ox teams with bulls, driver, and a cart filled with animals and crops as well as creatures that have been described as “bird headed women.” Maria Jimenez and her brothers specialize in saints and angels as well as some animals. Maria is the best known painter in the Oaxacan community. She says that she has about thirty designs that she has developed for carvings, many of which are related to when she made embroidered dresses.[20]

The most successful artisan is Jacobo Angeles, whose work have been prominently displayed at The Smithsonian and the National Museum of Mexican Art in Chicago.[17] It can also be found in numerous museums, art colleges and galleries in the world. Jacobo learned to carve from his father when he was twelve, and later was mentored by elders in his and other communities. While alebrijes designs have been innovative and incorporating modern elements, the Angeles family’s designs focus on representations of Zapotec culture. This can be seen in the painted designs, based on influences such as the friezes of Mitla, and other ancient symbols as well as the continued use in aniline paints made from natural ingredients such as the bark of the copal tree, baking soda, lime juice, pomegranate seeds, zinc, indigo, huitlacoche and cochineal. Each year, Jacobo travels the United States to promote Oaxacan folk art in general to educational institution as well as a speaker at art institutions.[17]

Arrazola[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Alebrijes te koop, in Arrazola

The making of alebrijes in Oaxaca was initially established in Arrazola by Manuel Jimenez.[14] Jimenez began carving wooden figures since he was a boy tending animals in the 1920s.[32] By the late 1950s and early 1960s, Jimenez’s work was being sold in the city of Oaxaca, which led them to being shown to folk art collectors such as Nelson Rockefeller. By the late 1960s, he was giving exhibitions in museums in Mexico City and the United States and tourists began visiting his workshop in the 1970s. He kept his carving techniques strictly within the family with only his sons and a son in law carving with him. For this reason, only six families were carving alebrijes in Arrazola as late as 1985. Jimenez died in 2005.[14] Today, Jimenez’s works fetch a minimum of $100 USD.[20]

Many carvers and carving communities engage in specialties in order to have niches in the more competitive alebrije market in Oaxaca. In Arrazola, one of the community’s specialty is the carving of complex animal bodies, especially iguanas out of one single piece of wood.[20] Another way the community competes is through its annual festival “Cuna de los Alebrijes” (Cradle of the Alebrijes), which is held each year to promote its figures. This fair is cosponsored by the Secretary of Tourism for the state of Oaxaca. It occurs in the second half of December, during the Christmas season, with more than sixty artisans who make the figures. The goals are to draw more tourists to the town at this time and to make connections with stores, galleries and museums.[35]

Like Tilcajete, Arrazola has a number of well known artisans. Marcelo Hernandez Vasquez and his sisters have been making alebrijes for eighteen years,[21] and Juan Carlos Santiago is sought out for his penguins. Antonio Aragon makes small, finely carved, realistic deer, dogs, lions and cats, and Sergio Aragon specializes in miniatures.[20] One of the best known is Miguel Santiago, who sells about forty pieces a year. Some of these sales are individual pieces and others are multiple sets such as Frida Kalo surrounded by monkeys. Sets are usually sold to foreign buyers for between $300 and $800 USD and have been sent to Europe, Japan and the United States. Sets often take more than a month to make and his work is considered to be in the high end of the market. Santiago’s orders extend more than two years in advance. Santiago used to work with a brother and later with a nephew, but today he works mostly solo with his father to help.[20] Another of the best known is one of the few female entrepreneurs in the market, Olga Santiago. She does not carve or paint, rather she hires others to do the work while she administrates. However, she signs all the pieces. Many of her carvers and painters are young men who leave quickly to form workshops of their own. While her workshop is not the only one run in this manner, hers is the newest and most successful. Olga’s client base is tourists, which are often brought to her by tour guides, taxi drivers and the like for a commission, and wholesalers.[20]

La Unión Tejalapan[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

La Union Tejalapan has not had the same success as Arrazola and Tilcajete because they have not been able to attract as many dealers or tourists.[20] However, a significant market remains for simple rustic pieces (pre-alebrije) and pieces painted with traditional aniline paints, which La Union specializes in. These are popular with those seeking non alebrije pieces such as saints, angels, devils, skeletons and motifs related to Day of the Dead. Alebrije pieces are also made, but are painted simply with one or two colors with few decorations. La Union artisans make multipiece rodeos, fiestas, and nativity scenes. Another rustic aspect to La Union pieces is that legs can be nailed onto the torsos.[20] The first alebrije carver from La union was Martin Santiago. In the 1950s and 1960s, Santiago worked in the United States for various periods working as an agricultural laborer in the Bracero Program. When this program ended, Santiago found that he could not support his family by farming and began selling woodcarvings to a shop owner in Oaxaca. This arrangement ended after a complex dispute. Santiago then began carving and selling on his own with his four brothers and for many years the Santiago family was the only carvers in the community.[20]

Today there are a number of others involved in the craft. Aguilino Garcia sells fairly expensive skunks, crocodiles, armadillos, and palm trees. He has a reputation for working slowing but makes pieces that were selling for between 100 and 400 pesos in 1998.[20] Better known is the husband and wife team of Reynaldo Santiago and Elodia Reyes, who have been carving since their marriage in the mid-1970s. Reynaldo is a nephew of Martin Santiago. Like in many other carving families, he carves while she paints. Their children are not involved in their business. While the couple make some large and medium-sized pieces, they specialize in miniatures (around seven cm), such as dogs, cats, giraffes, rabbits and goats which will for around 30 pesos each. Because La Union gets few tourists, the couple is mostly reliant on the store owners and wholesalers who buy from them. Today their major buyers are a wholesaler in California and a store owner in Texas.[20]

Other parts of Mexico[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Verlichte alebrijes in het Museum van Volkskunstin Mexico-Stad

Outside of Mexico City and Oaxaca, alebrijes are known and made but mostly as a hobby rather than as a significant source of work. Most of these alebrijes are made with papier-mâché, wire, cardboard and sometimes with other materials such as cloth.[4] Alebrije workshops and exhibitions have been held in Cancún.[36] Workshops on the making of alebrijes with the purpose of selling them have been held in Cuautla, Morelos .[4] In Tampico, workshops are given by Omar Villanueva. He has also given workshops in Nuevo Laredo, Campeche, Cancun, Playa del Carmen, Chetumal, Querétero and other places.[37]

One alebrije craftsman in Cuautla is Marcos Zenteno, who has taught the craft to his daughter. He also gives workshops on the making of the craft to others.[4] One of the major attractions at the Primer Festival Internacional de las Artes in Saltillo in 2000 were alebrijes, which came from workshops from Monclova, Sabinas, Parras de la Fuente and Saltillo.[11]

See also[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Mexico City Alebrije Parade

References[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

  1. ↑ a b c (es) Anaya, Edgar, "El Monstruo de la Ciudad de Mexico", 11 november 2001, p. 14.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g (es) "Alebrijes, una tradición amenazada", March 31, 2010. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  3. ↑ a b c d Gallucci, Maria, "Alebrijes to march on Mexico City", October 25, 2009.
  4. ↑ a b c d (es) "Taller de alebrijes Un emprendimiento Imparte Marcos Zenteno con "Capital Semilla"", El Sol de Cuautla, October 4, 2007. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  5. ↑ Russell, Anita, History of Mexican Papier Mache Sculpture. Driftwood Dreams Gallery. Gearchiveerd op 8 February 2007. Geraadpleegd op 11 februari 2007.
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Bercovitch, Helyn, In memory of Don Pedro - Alebrije art from a master artist. Mexconnect (7 september 2001). Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  7. ↑ a b c (es) Martinez, Juan Carlos, "Encantan alebrijes en Marco", October 1, 1997, p. 3.
  8. ↑ (es) Juandiego, Yazmin, "Sin proteccion el arte popular", 27 september 2000, p. 10.
  9. ↑ Henry, Barbara, "Carlsbad, Calif., arts program wins $17,000 grant", 11 november 2004, p. 1.
  10. ↑ (es) Alejo, Jesus, "Van alebrijes tras imaginación de los belgas", 22 december 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  11. ↑ a b (es) Herrera, Mario, "Mario Herrera/ Alebrijes? No son creacion de Linares sino de Ruelas y de Posada", October 22, 2000, p. 5.
  12. ↑ (es) López, Joaquín, "Carácter humano en los alebrijes de hoy", 24 november 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  13. ↑ (es) "Realizan Tercer Desfile de Alebrijes en México", October 24, 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  14. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Chibnik, Michael, Silvia Purata (March 2007). Conserving copalillo: The creation of sustainable Oaxacan wood carvings. Agriculture and Human Values 24 (1): 17–29 (Gainesville, FL)​. DOI: 10.1007/s10460-006-9033-1.
  15. ↑ a b c (es) "Concluye el Tercer Festival SHIN NAA LASN, "El arte del Pueblo", en San Martin Tilcajete", 4 november 2009. Geraadpleegd op 12 april 2010.
  16. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s (es) Hernández Espejo, Octavio, San Martín Tilcajete y sus alebrijes (Oaxaca). Mexico Desconocido magazine. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  17. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Starkman, Alvin, Jacobo Angeles: A rich wood-carving tradition in Oaxaca, dating to pre-Hispanic times. MexConnect. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  18. ↑ a b c d Cunningham, A. B. (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 148. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  19. ↑ a b c d Chibnik, Michael (Winter 2008). Advertising Oaxacan Woodcarvings. Human Organization 67 (4): 362–373 (Washington, DC)​.
  20. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Chibnik, Michael (Summer 2000). The evolution of market niches in Oaxacan woodcarving. Ethnology 39 (39): 225–243 (Pittsburgh)​. DOI: 10.2307/3774108.
  21. ↑ a b c d Martinez, Michael, "Craft is part of village life in Oaxacan region", 26 april 2007. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  22. ↑ a b c Serrano Oswald, S. Eréndira, The phenomenon of migration in San Martín Tilcajete, Oaxaca. A qualitative and gender sensitive women- focused reading of some of the dimensions of vulnerability on site.. United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security (July 2008). Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  23. ↑ a b c d Cunningham, A. B. (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 157. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  24. ↑ a b c d e f Cunningham, A. B. (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 147. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  25. ↑ a b Cunningham, A. B. (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 156. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  26. ↑ a b Cunningham, A. B. (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 158. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  27. ↑ a b c Cunningham, A. B., (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  28. ↑ a b c Cunningham, A. B., (2005). Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving .... Earthscan, Sterling, VA, p. 155. ISBN 1-84407-045-X. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  29. ↑ Sanchez, Virgilio, "Usan artesanos madera ilegal", October 25, 2009, p. 16.
  30. ↑ (es) Bienvenidos a la Tierra del Alebrije/Welcome to the Land of the Alebrijes. Committee Comunitario de Artesanos. Gearchiveerd op 25 May 2010. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  31. ↑ (es) LA FERIA DEL ALEBRIJE. Committee Comunitario de Artesanos. Gearchiveerd op 26 May 2010. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  32. ↑ a b (es) "Segunda Feria del Alebrije en Oaxaca", 11 november 2007. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  33. ↑ San Martín Tilcajete. Moon Handbooks. Gearchiveerd op 12 March 2010. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  34. ↑ (es) Schatorie, Chretien, "Oaxaca: El estado y su artesania", 1 november 1998, p. 4.
  35. ↑ (es) "Segunda expo artesanal "Cuna de los Alebrijes", en Arrazola", 16 december 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  36. ↑ (es) "Muestran sus alebrijes", June 8, 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.
  37. ↑ (es) "La creación de los alebrijes a la tampiqueña", July 18, 2009. Geraadpleegd op 17 april 2010.

External links[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Overgenomen van "https://nl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gebruiker:Erik_Zachte/Alebrije&oldid=67387015"