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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Bestuurscentrum Genève
Oprichting 1988
Werktaal Arabisch, Chinees, Engels, Frans, Russisch, Spaans
Lidmaatschap 195 leden
voorzitter Rajendra Pachauri
(2002 – heden)
Website IPCC

het Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is een wetenschappelijk Intergouvernementele organisatie onder toezicht van de verenigde Naties (VN),[1][2] en opgericht op verzoek van de lidstaten.[3] het IPCC is in 1988 opgericht door twee VN organisaties, de Wereld Meteorologische Organisatie (WMO) and de VN-Milieuprogramma (UNEP) en later goedgekeurd door de Algemene Vergadering van de Verenigde Naties bij Resolutie 43/53. Lidmaatschap van het IPCC is open voor alle leden van de WMO en UNEP.[4] Het IPCC wordt voorgezeten door Rajendra K. Pachauri.

Het IPCC produceert rapporten die het VN Klimaatverdrag (UNFCCC) ondersteunen, de belangrijkste internationale verdrag op het gebied van klimaatverandering.[5][6] het doel van het van het UNFCCC is om " concentraties van broeikasgassen in de atmosfeer te stabiliseren op een niveau waarop gevaarlijke antropogene [dwz door de mens veroorzaakte] verstoring van het klimaatsysteem wordt voorkomen ".[5] IPCC rapporten dekken "de wetenschappelijke, technische en sociaal-economische informatie over de wetenschappelijke basis van het risico van door de mens veroorzaakte klimaatverandering, de mogelijke effecten van de opwarming van de aarde en opties voor de Adaptatie (klimaatverandering) en Mitigatie [6]

Het IPCC voert zelf geen onderzoek uit, en houdt zich ook niet bezig met het monitoren van het klimaat. Het IPCC baseert haar rapporten op assessments van gepubliceerde literatuur, waaronder collegiaal getoetste literatuur en literatuur die niet collegiaal getoetst is.[7]

Duizenden wetenschappers en andere experts dragen op vrijwillige basis[8] bij aan het schrijven en het reviewen van de rapporten. Deze rapporten worden vervolgens ook door de overheden van lidstaten gereviewed. IPCC rappoten bestaan uit een beleidssamenvatting (Engels: Summary for Policymakers), die regel voor regel goedgekeurd wordt door de delegaties van de lidstaten. Hierbij zijn de overheden van meer van 150 landen betrokken.[9]

Het IPCC is wordt gezien als een international geaccepteerde autoriteit op het gebied van klimaatsverandering.[10] Ze produceren rapporten die de instemming van vooraanstaande klimaatwetenschappers en de consensus van de deelnemende overheden hebben. Op 12 oktober 2007 werd in Oslo bekendgemaakt dat aan het Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change samen met de voormalige Amerikaanse vicepresident en presidentskandidaat Al Gore de Nobelprijs voor de Vrede 2007 was toegekend "voor het vergroten en verspreiden van de kennis over de door de mens veroorzaakte klimaatverandering en voor het bevorderen van maatregelen om deze tegen te gaan." [11]

Doelstellingen[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In de grondbeginselen die het IPCC in haar werk leiden[12]. wordt beschreven dat het werk van het IPCC zich concentreert op taken die zijn toegewezen door het relevante WMO bestuurscollege en UNEP resoluties en besluiten, alsmede acties ter ondersteuning van het proces rond het VN-Raamverdrag inzake klimaatverandering.

Het IPCC heeft als doel om op uitgebreide, objectieve, open en transparante basis een evaluatie te maken van de beschikbare wetenschappelijke, technische en socio-economische informatie in verband met door de mens veroorzaakte klimaatverandering, de mogelijke effecten hiervan en opties voor adaptatie en mitigatie. Het ligt binnen het mandaat van het IPCC mandaat om objectief om te gaan met beleidsrelevante wetenschappelijke, technisch en socio-economische factoren en moet neutraal tegenover beleid staan. :[6]</ref>

Organisatie[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

De voorzitter van het IPCC is Rajendra Pachauri die in mei 2002 is verkozen. De vorige voorzitter was Robert Watson. De voorzitter wordt bijgestaan door een verkozen bureau dat bestaat uit vicevoorzitters, covoorzitters van de werkgroepen en een secretariaat.

Het IPCC pannel bestaat uit vertegenwoordigers die door overheid en organisaties zijn aangesteld. De plenaire sessie van het IPCC en de IPCC werkgroepen worden gehouden op het niveau van overheidsvertegenwoordigers. Niet-gouvernementele organisatie en Intergouvernementele organisatie kunnen aan deze sessie deelnemen als observatoren zonder stem of spreekrecht. De sessies van het IPCC bureau, workshops, expert en auteurs vergaderingen zijn alleen voor genodigden.[13] aan de plenaire sessies van 2003 namen 350 overheidsfunctionarissen en klimaatexperts deel.[14]

Het IPCC word gefinancierd door UNEP, WMO, and het eigen Trust Fund waarvoor een vrijwillige bijdrage voor wordt gevraagd aan de lidstaten.

Assessment reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

{{IPCC}} {{Refimprove|date=March 2014}} Het IPCC heeft vijf uitvoerige evaluatierapporten gepubliceerd die de meest recente stand van de klimaatwetenschap beschrijven. Er zijn daarnaast ook een aantal speciale rapporten over specifieke onderwerpen gepubliceerd. Deze rapporten worden opgesteld door teams van wetenschappers die door de overheden worden voorgedragen en vervolgens door het bureau geselecteerd worden. De concepten van deze rapporten zijn beschikbaar voor commentaar in een open beoordelingsproces waaraan iedereen aan kan bijdragen.

The IPCC published its first assessment report in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a second assessment report (SAR) in 1995, and a third assessment report (TAR) in 2001. A fourth assessment report (AR4) was released in 2007 and a fifth is due to be issued in 2014.

Each assessment report is in three volumes, corresponding to Working Groups I, II, and III. Unqualified, "the IPCC report" is often used to mean the Working Group I report, which covers the basic science of climate change.

Scope and preparation of the reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor climate related data. Lead authors of IPCC reports assess the available information about climate change based on published sources.[15][16] According to IPCC guidelines, authors should give priority to peer-reviewed sources.[15] Authors may refer to non-peer-reviewed sources (the "grey literature"), provided that they are of sufficient quality.[15] Examples of non-peer-reviewed sources include model results, reports from government agencies and non-governmental organizations, and industry journals.[7] Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report and also notes areas where further research is required.

There are generally three stages in the review process:[17]

  • Expert review (6–8 weeks)
  • Government/expert review
  • Government review of:
    • Summaries for Policymakers
    • Overview Chapters
    • Synthesis Report

Review comments are in an open archive for at least five years.

There are several types of endorsement which documents receive:

  • Approval. Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement.
    • Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are approved by their Working Groups.
    • Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is approved by Panel.
  • Adoption. Endorsed section by section (and not line by line).
    • Panel adopts Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
    • Panel adopts IPCC Synthesis Report.
  • Acceptance. Not been subject to line by line discussion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, objective, and balanced view of the subject matter.
    • Working Groups accept their reports.
    • Task Force Reports are accepted by the Panel.
    • Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are accepted by the Panel after group approval.

The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards.

There have been a range of commentaries on the IPCC's procedures, examples of which are discussed later in the article (see also IPCC Summary for Policymakers). Some of these comments have been supportive,[18] while others have been critical.[19] Some commentators have suggested changes to the IPCC's procedures.[20]

Authors[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Each chapter has a number of authors who are responsible for writing and editing the material. A chapter typically has two "coordinating lead authors", ten to fifteen "lead authors", and a somewhat larger number of "contributing authors". The coordinating lead authors are responsible for assembling the contributions of the other authors, ensuring that they meet stylistic and formatting requirements, and reporting to the Working Group chairs. Lead authors are responsible for writing sections of chapters. Contributing authors prepare text, graphs or data for inclusion by the lead authors.

Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments and participating organisations, and by the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, as well as other experts known through their published work. The choice of authors aims for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation, ensuring representation of experts from developing and developed countries and countries with economies in transition.

First assessment report[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie IPCC First Assessment Report voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the UNFCCC.

The executive summary of the WG I Summary for Policymakers report says they are certain that emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. They calculate with confidence that CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect. They predict that under a "business as usual" (BAU) scenario, global mean temperature will increase by about 0.3 °C per decade during the [21st] century. They judge that global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more.

Supplementary report of 1992[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the UNFCCC at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did "not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment". It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.

Second assessment report[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie IPCC Second Assessment Report voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996. It is split into four parts:

  • A synthesis to help interpret UNFCCC article 2.
  • The Science of Climate Change (WG I)
  • Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change (WG II)
  • Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (WG III)

Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SPM) that represents a consensus of national representatives. The SPM of the WG I report contains headings:

  1. Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to increase
  2. Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative radiative forcings
  3. Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the late 19th century; this estimate has not significantly changed since the 1990 report).
  4. The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies)
  5. Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections)
  6. There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies)

Third assessment report[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie IPCC Third Assessment Report voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

The Third Assessment Report (TAR) was completed in 2001 and consists of four reports, three of them from its working groups:

  • Working Group I: The Scientific Basis[21]
  • Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability[22]
  • Working Group III: Mitigation[23]
  • Synthesis Report[24]

A number of the TAR's conclusions are given quantitative estimates of how probable it is that they are correct, e.g., greater than 66% probability of being correct.[25] These are "Bayesian" probabilities, which are based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence.[26][27]

"Robust findings" of the TAR Synthesis Report include:

  • "Observations show Earth's surface is warming. Globally, 1990s very likely warmest decade in instrumental record".[28] Atmospheric concentrations of anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases have increased substantially.[28]
  • Since the mid-20th century, most of the observed warming is "likely" (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement)[25] due to human activities.[28]
  • Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least the last 10,000 years.[28]
  • "Projected climate change will have beneficial and adverse effects on both environmental and socio-economic systems, but the larger the changes and the rate of change in climate, the more the adverse effects predominate."[28]
  • "Ecosystems and species are vulnerable to climate change and other stresses (as illustrated by observed impacts of recent regional temperature changes) and some will be irreversibly damaged or lost."[28]
  • "Greenhouse gas emission reduction (mitigation) actions would lessen the pressures on natural and human systems from climate change."[28]
  • "Adaptation [to the effects of climate change] has the potential to reduce adverse effects of climate change and can often produce immediate ancillary benefits, but will not prevent all damages."[28] An example of adaptation to climate change is building levees in response to sea level rise.[29]

Comments on the TAR[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In 2001, 17 national science academies issued a joint-statement on climate change,[30] in which they stated "we support the [TAR's] conclusion that it is at least 90% certain that temperatures will continue to rise, with average global surface temperature projected to increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 °C above 1990 levels by 2100". The TAR has also been endorsed by the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences,[31] Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society,[32] and European Geosciences Union[33] (refer to "Endorsements of the IPCC").

In 2001, the US National Research Council (US NRC)[34] produced a report that assessed Working Group I's (WGI) contribution to the TAR. US NRC (2001)[35] "generally agrees" with the WGI assessment, and describes the full WGI report as an "admirable summary of research activities in climate science".[36]

IPCC author Richard Lindzen has made a number of criticisms of the TAR.[37] Among his criticisms, Lindzen has stated that the WGI Summary for Policymakers (SPM) does not faithfully summarize the full WGI report.[37] For example, Lindzen states that the SPM understates the uncertainty associated with climate models.[37] John Houghton, who was a co-chair of TAR WGI,[38] has responded to Lindzen's criticisms of the SPM.[39] Houghton has stressed that the SPM is agreed upon by delegates from many of the world's governments, and that any changes to the SPM must be supported by scientific evidence.[39]

IPCC author Kevin Trenberth has also commented on the WGI SPM.[40] Trenberth has stated that during the drafting of the WGI SPM, some government delegations attempted to "blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages in the report".[40] However, Trenberth concludes that the SPM is a "reasonably balanced summary".[40]

US NRC (2001)[41] concluded that the WGI SPM and Technical Summary are "consistent" with the full WGI report. US NRC (2001)[36] stated:

[...] the full [WGI] report is adequately summarized in the Technical Summary. The full WGI report and its Technical Summary are not specifically directed at policy. The Summary for Policymakers reflects less emphasis on communicating the basis for uncertainty and a stronger emphasis on areas of major concern associated with human-induced climate change. This change in emphasis appears to be the result of a summary process in which scientists work with policy makers on the document. Written responses from U.S. coordinating and lead scientific authors to the committee indicate, however, that (a) no changes were made without the consent of the convening lead authors (this group represents a fraction of the lead and contributing authors) and (b) most changes that did occur lacked significant impact.

Fourth assessment report[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie IPCC Fourth Assessment Report voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was published in 2007.[42] Like previous assessment reports, it consists of four reports:

  • Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis
  • Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
  • Working Group III: Mitigation
  • Synthesis Report

People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which took 6 years to produce.[42] Contributors to AR4 included more than 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.[42]

"Robust findings" of the Synthesis report include:

  • "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level".[43]
  • Most of the global average warming over the past 50 years is "very likely" (greater than 90% probability, based on expert judgement)[44] due to human activities.[43]
  • "Impacts [of climate change] will very likely increase due to increased frequencies and intensities of some extreme weather events".[45]
  • "Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries even if GHG emissions were to be reduced sufficiently for GHG concentrations to stabilise, due to the time scales associated with climate processes and feedbacks".[45] Stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations is discussed in climate change mitigation.
  • "Some planned adaptation (of human activities) is occurring now; more extensive adaptation is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change".[46]
  • "Unmitigated climate change would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt".[46]
  • "Many impacts [of climate change] can be reduced, delayed or avoided by mitigation".[46]

Global warming projections from AR4[47] are shown below. The projections apply to the end of the 21st century (2090–99), relative to temperatures at the end of the 20th century (1980–99). Add 0.7 °C to projections to make them relative to pre-industrial levels instead of 1980–99.[48] Descriptions of the greenhouse gas emissions scenarios can be found in Special Report on Emissions Scenarios.

AR4 global warming projections[47]
Emissions
scenario		 Best estimate
(°C)		 "Likely" range
(°C)
B1 1.8 1.1 – 2.9
A1T 2.4 1.4 – 3.8
B2 2.4 1.4 – 3.8
A1B 2.8 1.7 – 4.4
A2 3.4 2.0 – 5.4
A1FI 4.0 2.4 – 6.4

"Likely" means greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on expert judgement.[44]

Response to AR4[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Several science academies have referred to and/or reiterated some of the conclusions of AR4. These include:

The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, et al., 2009;[56] 2010)[57] has carried out two reviews of AR4. These reviews are generally supportive of AR4's conclusions.[58][59] PBL (2010)[59] make some recommendations to improve the IPCC process. A literature assessment by the US National Research Council (US NRC, 2010)[60] concludes:

Climate change is occurring, is caused largely by human activities, and poses significant risks for—and in many cases is already affecting—a broad range of human and natural systems [emphasis in original text]. [...] This conclusion is based on a substantial array of scientific evidence, including recent work, and is consistent with the conclusions of recent assessments by the U.S. Global Change Research Program [...], the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth Assessment Report [...], and other assessments of the state of scientific knowledge on climate change.

Some errors have been found in the IPCC AR4 Working Group II report. Two errors include the melting of Himalayan glaciers (see later section), and Dutch land area that is below sea level.[61]

Fifth assessment report[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie IPCC Fifth Assessment Report voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

The IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) will be completed in 2014.[62] AR5 will follow the same general format of AR4, with three Working Group reports and a Synthesis report.[62] The Working Group I report (WG1) was published in September 2013.[62]

Working Group I report

Conclusions of the WG1 report are summarized below:

  • "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia".[63]
  • "Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years".[64]
  • Human influence on the climate system is clear.[65] It is extremely likely (95-100% probability)[66] that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951-2010.[65]
  • "Continued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further [global] warming and changes in all components of the climate system. Limiting climate change will require substantial and sustained reductions of greenhouse gas emissions".[67]
  • "Most aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries even if emissions of {{CO2}} are stopped".[68]

Projections[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Projections in AR5 are based on "Representative Concentration Pathways" (RCPs).[69] The RCPs are consistent with a wide range of possible changes in future anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.[70] RCP 2.6 assumes that global annual GHG emissions (measured in {{CO2}}-equivalents) peak between 2010-2020, with emissions declining substantially thereafter.[71] Emissions in RCP 4.5 peak around 2040, then decline.[71] In RCP 6, emissions peak around 2080, then decline.[71] In RCP 8.5, emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century.[71]

21st century

Mid- and late-21st century (2046-2065 and 2081-2100 averages, respectively) projections of global warming and global mean sea level rise from AR5 WG1 are tabulated below. The projections are relative to temperatures and sea levels in the late-20th to early-21st centuries (1986-2005 average). Temperature projections can be converted to a reference period of 1850-1900 or 1980-99 by adding 0.61 or 0.11 °C, respectively.[72]

AR5 global warming projections[72]
2046-2065 2081-2100
Scenario Mean and
likely range		 Mean and
likely range
RCP2.6 1.0 (0.4 to 1.6) 1.0 (0.3 to 1.7)
RCP4.5 1.4 (0.9 to 2.0) 1.8 (1.1 to 2.6)
RCP6.0 1.3 (0.8 to 1.8) 2.2 (1.4 to 3.1)
RCP8.5 2.0 (1.4 to 2.6) 3.7 (2.6 to 4.8)
AR5 global mean sea level projections[72]
2046-2065 2081-2100
Scenario Mean and
likely range		 Mean and
likely range
RCP2.6 0.24 (0.17 to 0.32) 0.40 (0.26 to 0.55)
RCP4.5 0.26 (0.19 to 0.33) 0.47 (0.32 to 0.63)
RCP6.0 0.25 (0.18 to 0.32) 0.48 (0.33 to 0.63)
RCP8.5 0.30 (0.22 to 0.38) 0.63 (0.45 to 0.82)
23rd century

AR5 also projects changes in climate beyond the 21st century. For the extended RCP2.6, global warming of 0.0 to 1.2 °C is projected for the late-23rd century (2281-2300 average), relative to 1986-2005.[73] For the extended RCP8.5, global warming of 3.0 to 12.6 °C is projected over the same time period.[73]

Special reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In addition to climate assessment reports, the IPCC is publishing Special Reports on specific topics. The preparation and approval process for all IPCC Special Reports follows the same procedures as for IPCC Assessment Reports. In the year 2011 two IPCC Special Report were finalized, the Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) and the Special Report on Managing Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX). Both Special Reports were requested by governments.[74]

Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES)[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) is a report by the IPCC which was published in 2000.[75] The SRES contains "scenarios" of future changes in emissions of greenhouse gases and sulfur dioxide.[76] One of the uses of the SRES scenarios is to project future changes in climate, e.g., changes in global mean temperature. The SRES scenarios were used in the IPCC's Third[77] and Fourth Assessment Reports.[78]

The SRES scenarios are "baseline" (or "reference") scenarios, which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g., the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change).[79] SRES emissions projections are broadly comparable in range to the baseline projections that have been developed by the scientific community.[80]

Comments on the SRES[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

There have been a number of comments on the SRES. Parson et al. (2007)[81] stated that the SRES represented "a substantial advance from prior scenarios". At the same time, there have been criticisms of the SRES.[82]

The most prominently publicized criticism of SRES focused on the fact that all but one of the participating models compared gross domestic product (GDP) across regions using market exchange rates (MER), instead of the more correct purchasing-power parity (PPP) approach.[83] This criticism is discussed in the main SRES article.

Special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation (SRREN)[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

This report assesses existing literature on renewable energy commercialisation for the mitigation of climate change. It covers the six most important renewable energy technologies, as well as their integration into present and future energy systems. It also takes into consideration the environmental and social consequences associated with these technologies, the cost and strategies to overcome technical as well as non-technical obstacles to their application and diffusion.

More than 130 authors from all over the world contributed to the preparation of IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) on a voluntary basis – not to mention more than 100 scientists, who served as contributing authors.[74][84]

Special Report on managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation (SREX)[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The report assesses the effect that climate change has on the threat of natural disasters and how nations can better manage an expected change in the frequency of occurrence and intensity of severe weather patterns. It aims to become a resource for decision-makers to prepare more effectively for managing the risks of these events. A potentially important area for consideration is also the detection of trends in extreme events and the attribution of these trends to human influence.

More than 80 authors, 19 review editors, and more than 100 contributing authors from all over the world contributed to the preparation of SREX.[74][85]

Methodology reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Within IPCC the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program develops methodologies to estimate emissions of greenhouse gases.[86] This has been undertaken since 1991 by the IPCC WGI in close collaboration with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the International Energy Agency. The objectives of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program are:

  • to develop and refine an internationally agreed methodology and software for the calculation and reporting of national greenhouse gas emissions and removals; and
  • to encourage the widespread use of this methodology by countries participating in the IPCC and by signatories of the UNFCCC.

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The 1996 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Investories provide the methodological basis for the estimation of national greenhouse gas emissions inventories.[87] Over time these guidelines have been completed with good practice reports: Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry.

The 1996 guidelines and the two good practice reports are to be used by parties to the UNFCCC and to the Kyoto Protocol in their annual submissions of national greenhouse gas inventories.

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories is the latest version of these emission estimation methodologies, including a large number of default emission factors.<nowiki>{{Clarify|date=December 2011}}</nowiki>[88] Although the IPCC prepared this new version of the guidelines on request of the parties to the UNFCCC, the methods have not yet been officially accepted for use in national greenhouse gas emissions reporting under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.[89]

Activities[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted to it by the relevant WMO Executive Council and UNEP Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UNFCCC process.[6] While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre[90] and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme,[91] required under the UNFCCC. This involves publishing default emission factors, which are factors used to derive emissions estimates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial production and so on.

The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).

Nobel Peace Prize[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie 2007 Nobel Peace Prize voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.
Werken van of over dit onderwerp zijn te vinden op de pagina Al Gore's Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech op Wikisource.

In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change". The award is shared with Former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth.[92]

Responses[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community, which is reflected in publications by other scientific bodies[30][49][60] and experts.[93] However, criticisms of the IPCC have been made.[94]

Projected date of melting of Himalayan glaciers[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie Criticism of the IPCC AR4 voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.

A paragraph in the 2007 Working Group II report ("Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability"), chapter 10 included a projection that Himalayan glaciers could disappear by 2035

Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world (see Table 10.9) and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate. Its total area will likely shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 km2 by the year 2035 (WWF, 2005).

This projection was not included in the final summary for policymakers. The IPCC has since acknowledged that the date is incorrect, while reaffirming that the conclusion in the final summary was robust. They expressed regret for "the poor application of well-established IPCC procedures in this instance". The date of 2035 has been correctly quoted by the IPCC from the WWF report, which has misquoted its own source, an ICSI report "Variations of Snow and Ice in the past and at present on a Global and Regional Scale".

Rajendra K. Pachauri responded in an interview with Science.[95]

Watson criticism[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Former IPCC chairman Robert Watson has said "The mistakes all appear to have gone in the direction of making it seem like climate change is more serious by overstating the impact. That is worrying. The IPCC needs to look at this trend in the errors and ask why it happened".[96] Martin Parry, a climate expert [97] who had been co-chair of the IPCC working group II, said that "What began with a single unfortunate error over Himalayan glaciers has become a clamour without substance" and the IPCC had investigated the other alleged mistakes, which were "generally unfounded and also marginal to the assessment".[98]

Emphasis of the "hockey stick" graph[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Zie Hockey stick graph en Hockey stick controversy voor de hoofdartikelen over dit onderwerp.
Comparison of MBH99 40-year average from proxy records, as used in IPCC TAR 2001 (blue), with IPCC 1990 schematic Figure 7.1.c (red) [based on Lamb 1965 extrapolating from central England temperatures and other historical records]; central England temperatures to 2007 shown from Jones et al. 2009 (green dashed line).[99] Also shown, Moberg et al. 2005 low frequency signal (black).

The third assessment report (TAR) prominently featured[100] a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" based on a 1999 paper by Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes (MBH99), which has been referred to as the "hockey stick graph". This graph extended the similar graph in Figure 3.20 from the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995, and differed from a schematic in the first assessment report that lacked temperature units, but appeared to depict larger global temperature variations over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period than the mid 20th century. The schematic was not an actual plot of data, and was based on a diagram of temperatures in central England, with temperatures increased on the basis of documentary evidence of Medieval vineyards in England. Even with this increase, the maximum it showed for the Medieval Warm Period did not reach temperatures recorded in central England in 2007.[99] The MBH99 finding was supported by cited reconstructions by {{Harvnb|Jones|Briffa|Barnett|Tett|1998}}, {{Harvnb|Pollack|Huang|Shen|1998}}, {{Harvnb|Crowley|Lowery|2000}} and {{Harvnb|Briffa|2000}}, using differing data and methods. The Jones et al. and Briffa reconstructions were overlaid with the MBH99 reconstruction in Figure 2.21 of the IPCC report.[101]

These studies were widely presented as demonstrating that the current warming period is exceptional in comparison to temperatures between 1000 and 1900, and the MBH99 based graph featured in publicity. Even at the draft stage, this finding was disputed by contrarians: in May 2000 Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project held a press event on Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C., featuring comments on the graph Wibjörn Karlén and Singer argued against the graph at a United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation hearing on 18 July 2000. Contrarian John Lawrence Daly featured a modified version of the IPCC 1990 schematic, which he mis-identified as appearing in the IPCC 1995 report, and argued that "Overturning its own previous view in the 1995 report, the IPCC presented the 'Hockey Stick' as the new orthodoxy with hardly an apology or explanation for the abrupt U-turn since its 1995 report".[102] Criticism of the MBH99 reconstruction in a review paper, which was quickly discredited in the Soon and Baliunas controversy, was picked up by the Bush administration, and a Senate speech by US Republican senator James Inhofe alleged that "manmade global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people". The data and methodology used to produce the "hockey stick graph" was criticized in papers by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick,[103] and in turn the criticisms in these papers were examined by other studies and comprehensively refuted by {{Harvnb|Wahl|Ammann|2007}},[104] which showed errors in the methods used by McIntyre and McKitrick.[105]

On 23 June 2005, Rep. Joe Barton, chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce wrote joint letters with Ed Whitfield, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations demanding full records on climate research, as well as personal information about their finances and careers, from Mann, Bradley and Hughes.[106] Sherwood Boehlert, chairman of the House Science Committee, said this was a "misguided and illegitimate investigation" apparently aimed at intimidating scientists, and at his request the U.S. National Academy of Sciences arranged for its National Research Council to set up a special investigation.[107] The National Research Council's report agreed that there were some statistical failings, but these had little effect on the graph, which was generally correct. In a 2006 letter to Nature, Mann, Bradley, and Hughes pointed out that their original article had said that "more widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached" and that the uncertainties were "the point of the article".[108]

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published in 2007 featured a graph showing 12 proxy based temperature reconstructions, including the three highlighted in the 2001 Third Assessment Report (TAR); {{Harvnb|Mann|Bradley|Hughes|1999}} as before, {{Harvnb|Jones|Briffa|Barnett|Tett|1998}} and {{Harvnb|Briffa|2000}} had both been calibrated by newer studies. In addition, analysis of the Medieval Warm Period cited reconstructions by {{Harvnb|Crowley|Lowery|2000}} (as cited in the TAR) and {{Harvnb|Osborn|Briffa|2006}}. Ten of these 14 reconstructions covered 1,000 years or longer. Most reconstructions shared some data series, particularly tree ring data, but newer reconstructions used additional data and covered a wider area, using a variety of statistical methods. The section discussed the divergence problem affecting certain tree ring data.[109]

Conservative nature of IPCC reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Some critics have contended that the IPCC reports tend to underestimate dangers, understate risks, and report only the "lowest common denominator" findings.[110]

On 1 February 2007, the eve of the publication of IPCC's major report on climate, a study was published suggesting that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or above the maximum rates proposed during the last IPCC report in 2001.[111] The study compared IPCC 2001 projections on temperature and sea level change with observations. Over the six years studied, the actual temperature rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC's 2001 projection, and the actual sea level rise was above the top of the range of the IPCC projection.

Another example of scientific research which suggests that previous estimates by the IPCC, far from overstating dangers and risks, have actually understated them is a study on projected rises in sea levels. When the researchers' analysis was "applied to the possible scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the researchers found that in 2100 sea levels would be 0.5–1.4 m [50–140 cm] above 1990 levels. These values are much greater than the 9–88 cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001". This may have been due, in part, to the expanding human understanding of climate.[112][113]

In reporting criticism by some scientists that IPCC's then-impending January 2007 report understates certain risks, particularly sea level rises, an AP story quoted Stefan Rahmstorf, professor of physics and oceanography at Potsdam University as saying "In a way, it is one of the strengths of the IPCC to be very conservative and cautious and not overstate any climate change risk".[114]

In his December 2006 book, Hell and High Water: Global Warming, and in an interview on Fox News on 31 January 2007, energy expert Joseph Romm noted that the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report is already out of date and omits recent observations and factors contributing to global warming, such as the release of greenhouse gases from thawing tundra.[115]

Political influence on the IPCC has been documented by the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration, and its effects on the IPCC's leadership. The memo led to strong Bush administration lobbying, evidently at the behest of ExxonMobil, to oust Robert Watson, a climate scientist, from the IPCC chairmanship, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more mild-mannered and industry-friendly.[116][117]

IPCC processes[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In 2005, the UK House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs (of which Nigel Lawson, the noted climate sceptic, was a member) produced a report on the economics of climate change. It commented on the IPCC process:

{{quotation|We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations. There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCC's emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios. The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change. The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags.|[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldeconaf/12/12i.pdf ''The Economics of Climate Change'']<small>[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]</small>}}

The Stern Review ordered by the UK government, whose findings were released in October 2006, made a stronger argument in favor of urgent action to combat human-made climate change than previous analyses, including some by IPCC. The conclusions of the Stern Review have been contested, however.[118]

The structural elements of the IPCC processes have been criticized in other ways, with the design of the processes during the formation of the IPCC making its reports prone not to exaggerations, but to underestimating dangers, under-stating risks, and reporting only the "least common denominator" findings which by design make it through the bureaucracy. As noted by Spencer Weart, Director of the Center for History of Physics at the American Institute of Physics,

{{quotation|The Reagan administration wanted to forestall pronouncements by self-appointed committees of scientists, fearing they would be 'alarmist.' Conservatives promoted the IPCC's clumsy structure, which consisted of representatives appointed by every government in the world and required to consult all the thousands of experts in repeated rounds of report-drafting in order to reach a consensus. Despite these impediments the IPCC has issued unequivocal statements on the urgent need to act.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hnn.us/articles/30148.html|title=Global Warming: How History Is Being Manipulated to Undermine Calls for Action|last=Weart |first=Spencer |date=16 October 2006 |publisher=[[History News Network]] |accessdate=22 February 2010}}</ref>}}

Climatologist Judith Curry, who supports the scientific conclusions of the IPCC reports generally, has publicly criticized aspects of the IPCC's process, expressions of certainty, and treatment of dissent.[119]

Outdatedness of reports[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Since the IPCC does not carry out its own research, it operates on the basis of scientific papers and independently documented results from other scientific bodies, and its schedule for producing reports requires a deadline for submissions prior to the report's final release. In principle, this means that any significant new evidence or events that change our understanding of climate science between this deadline and publication of an IPCC report cannot be included. In an area of science where our scientific understanding is rapidly changing, this has been raised as a serious shortcoming in a body which is widely regarded as the ultimate authority on the science.[120] However, there has generally been a steady evolution of key findings and levels of scientific confidence from one assessment report to the next.{{Citeer journal needed|date=July 2009}}

The submission deadlines for the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) differed for the reports of each Working Group. Deadlines for the Working Group I report were adjusted during the drafting and review process in order to ensure that reviewers had access to unpublished material being cited by the authors. The final deadline for cited publications was 24 July 2006.[121] The final WG I report was released on 30 April 2007 and the final AR4 Synthesis Report was released on 17 November 2007.

Rajendra Pachauri, the IPCC chair, admitted at the launch of this report that since the IPCC began work on it, scientists have recorded "much stronger trends in climate change", like the unforeseen dramatic melting of polar ice in the summer of 2007,[122] and added, "that means you better start with intervention much earlier".[123]

Burden on participating scientists[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Scientists who participate in the IPCC assessment process do so without any compensation other than the normal salaries they receive from their home institutions. The process is labor-intensive, diverting time and resources from participating scientists' research programs.[124] Concerns have been raised that the large uncompensated time commitment and disruption to their own research may discourage qualified scientists from participating.[125]

In May 2010, Pachauri noted that the IPCC currently had no process for responding to errors or flaws once it issued a report. The problem, according to Pachauri, was that once a report was issued the panels of scientists producing the reports were disbanded.[126]

Proposed organizational overhaul[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In February 2010, in response to controversies regarding claims in the Fourth Assessment Report,[127][128] five climate scientists – all contributing or lead IPCC report authors – wrote in the journal Nature calling for changes to the IPCC. They suggested a range of new organizational options, from tightening the selection of lead authors and contributors, to dumping it in favor of a small permanent body, or even turning the whole climate science assessment process into a moderated "living" Wikipedia-IPCC.[129][130] Other recommendations included that the panel employ a full-time staff and remove government oversight from its processes to avoid political interference.[131]

InterAcademy Council review[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

In March 2010, at the invitation of the United Nations secretary-general and the chair of the IPCC, the InterAcademy Council (IAC) was asked to review the IPCC's processes for developing its reports.[132][133] The IAC panel, chaired by Harold Tafler Shapiro, convened on 14 May 2010 and released its report on 1 September 2010.[126][134]

The IAC found that, "The IPCC assessment process has been successful overall". The panel, however, made seven formal recommendations for improving the IPCC's assessment process, including:

  1. establish an executive committee;
  2. elect an executive director whose term would only last for one assessment;
  3. encourage review editors to ensure that all reviewer comments are adequately considered and genuine controversies are adequately reflected in the assessment reports;
  4. adopt a better process for responding to reviewer comments;
  5. working groups should use a qualitative level-of-understanding scale in the Summary for Policy Makers and Technical Summary;
  6. "Quantitative probabilities (as in the likelihood scale) should be used to describe the probability of well-defined outcomes only when there is sufficient evidence"; and
  7. implement a communications plan that emphasizes transparency and establish guidelines for who can speak on behalf of the organization.[135]

The panel also advised that the IPCC avoid appearing to advocate specific policies in response to its scientific conclusions.[136] Commenting on the IAC report, Nature News noted that "The proposals were met with a largely favourable response from climate researchers who are eager to move on after the media scandals and credibility challenges that have rocked the United Nations body during the past nine months".[137]

Endorsements of the IPCC[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Various scientific bodies have issued official statements endorsing and concurring with the findings of the IPCC.

  • Joint science academies' statement of 2001. "The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science. We recognise IPCC as the world's most reliable source of information on climate change and its causes, and we endorse its method of achieving this consensus".[30]
  • Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences. "We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment..."[31]
  • Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society. "CMOS endorses the process of periodic climate science assessment carried out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and supports the conclusion, in its Third Assessment Report, which states that the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate."[32]<nowiki>{{Clarify|reason="the balance of evidence..." statement is from the IPCC Second Assessment Report, not the IPCC Third Assessment Report|date=April 2013}}</nowiki>
  • European Geosciences Union. "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [...] is the main representative of the global scientific community [...][The] IPCC third assessment report [...] represents the state-of-the-art of climate science supported by the major science academies around the world and by the vast majority of scientific researchers and investigations as documented by the peer-reviewed scientific literature".[33]
  • International Council for Science. "...the IPCC 4th Assessment Report represents the most comprehensive international scientific assessment ever conducted. This assessment reflects the current collective knowledge on the climate system, its evolution to date, and its anticipated future development".[138]
  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA). "Internationally, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)... is the most senior and authoritative body providing scientific advice to global policy makers".[139]
  • United States National Research Council. "The [IPCC Third Assessment Report's] conclusion that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations accurately reflects the current thinking of the scientific community on this issue".[140]
  • Network of African Science Academies. "The IPCC should be congratulated for the contribution it has made to public understanding of the nexus that exists between energy, climate and sustainability".[141]
  • Royal Meteorological Society, in response to the release of the Fourth Assessment Report, referred to the IPCC as "The world's best climate scientists".[142]
  • Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London. "The most authoritative assessment of climate change in the near future is provided by the Inter-Governmental Panel for Climate Change".[143]

See also[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

Notes[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

  1. ↑ Organization. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geraadpleegd op 15 January 2010.
  2. ↑ A guide to facts and fictions about climate change. The Royal Society (March 2005). Geraadpleegd op 30 november 2009.
  3. ↑ Weart, Spencer, International Cooperation: Democracy and Policy Advice (1980s). The Discovery of Global Warming. American Institute of Physics (December 2011). Geraadpleegd op 9 July 2012.
  4. ↑ A guide to facts and fiction about climate change. The Royal Society (March 2005). Geraadpleegd op 24 July 2007.
  5. ↑ a b Introduction to the Convention (UNFCCC). Geraadpleegd op 27 January 2014. . Archived page.
  6. ↑ a b c d Principles governing IPCC work (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (28 april 2006).
  7. ↑ a b Chapter 2: Evaluation of IPCC's Assessment Processes, in {{Harvnb|IAC|2010|p=16}}. Archived file.
  8. ↑ http://www.ipcc.ch/organization/organization_structure.shtml#.UlNK7Y7Regw
  9. ↑ Understanding Climate Change: 22 years of IPCC assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (November 2010). Geraadpleegd op 2 november 2011.
  10. ↑ Sample, Ian, "Scientists offered cash to dispute climate study", Guardian, 2 February 2007. Geraadpleegd op 24 July 2007. "Lord Rees of Ludlow, the president of the Royal Society, Britain's most prestigious scientific institute, said: "The IPCC is the world's leading authority on climate change...""
  11. ↑ The Nobel Peace Prize for 2007. Nobelprize.org (12 October 2007). Geraadpleegd op 25 augustus 2014.
  12. ↑ {{url|[https://www.google.nl/url?url=https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ipcc-principles/ipcc-principles.pdf&rct=j&frm=1&q=&esrc=s&sa=U&ei=civ7U4jeHM_catHZgPAH&ved=0CBQQFjAA&sig2=FS_Fe5tpBSAMVEEamZB8BQ&usg=AFQjCNEv273c-kZiAzzkwipR5egsCo6HwQ |title=Principles Governing IPCC Work] |accessdate=25 augustus 2014}}
  13. ↑ IPCC. Official documents{{Dead link|date=June 2012}}. Retrieved December 2006. web archive, 21 February 2010
  14. ↑ IPCC. Report on the Twentieth Session of the IPCC{{Dead link|date=June 2012}} PDF (379 KB). 19 February 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006. Web archive pdf file damaged 20`0-02-21
  15. ↑ a b c {{Harvnb|ITGP|2010|pp=6–7}}
  16. ↑ IPCC. Mandate and Membership of IPCC{{Dead link|date=June 2012}}. Retrieved 20 December 2006. Web archive 21 February 2010
  17. ↑ Appendix A to the Principles Governing IPCC Work (PDF) (April 1999). Geraadpleegd op 31 October 2013.
  18. ↑ e.g., Barker, T., House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs Minutes of Evidence. Memorandum by Dr Terry Baker, Cambridge University (28 February 2005). , in {{Harvnb|Economic Affairs Committee|2005}}
  19. ↑ e.g., Economic Affairs Committee, Abstract. , in {{Harvnb|Economic Affairs Committee|2005}}
  20. ↑ e.g., Interacademy Council (1 October 2010). Climate Change Assessments, Review of the Processes & Procedures of the IPCC, "Executive summary". ISBN 978-90-6984-617-0. . Report website.
  21. ↑ Working Group 1, IPCC.
  22. ↑ Working Group 2, IPCC.
  23. ↑ Working Group 3, IPCC.
  24. ↑ Synthesis Report, IPCC.
  25. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC TAR SYR|2001|p=44}}
  26. ↑ Ahmad, Q.K., et al.. . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC TAR WG2|2001}}.
  27. ↑ Granger Morgan, M., et al. (2009). Synthesis and Assessment Product 5.2: Best practice approaches for characterizing, communicating, and incorporating scientific uncertainty in decisionmaking. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Washington D.C., USA.)​. , pp.19–20; 27–28. Report website.
  28. ↑ a b c d e f g h . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC TAR SYR|2001}}.
  29. ↑ Nicholls, R.J., et al.. . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG2|2007|p=343}}
  30. ↑ a b c The joint-statement was made by the Australian Academy of Science, the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of Canada, the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, the Indian National Science Academy, the Indonesian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Irish Academy, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), the Academy of Sciences Malaysia, the Academy Council of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society (UK). Joint statement by 17 national science academies (17 May 2001). The Science of Climate Change (Royal Society: London, UK)​. . Statement website at the UK Royal Society. Also published as: (18 May 2001). The Science of Climate Change (editorial). Science 292 (5520). DOI: 10.1126/science.292.5520.1261.
  31. ↑ a b CFCAS Letter to PM, November 25, 2005{{Dead link|date=June 2012}}
  32. ↑ a b Bob Jones, CMOS Position Statement on Global Warming. Cmos.ca. Geraadpleegd op 25 June 2012.
  33. ↑ a b European Geosciences Union Divisions of Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, Position Statement on Climate Change and Recent Letters from the Chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce (7 July 2005).
  34. ↑ {{Harvnb|US NRC|2001}}
  35. ↑ . , in {{Harvnb|US NRC|2001|p=1}}
  36. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|US NRC|2001|p=4}}
  37. ↑ a b c Lindzen, R.S. (1 May 2001). PREPARED STATEMENT OF DR. RICHARD S. LINDZEN, MASSACHUSSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, in: S. Hrg. 107-1027 – INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC) THIRD ASSESSMENT REPORT. US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation (US Government Printing Office (GPO): Washington, DC)​. , pp.29–31. Available in text and PDF formats. Also available as a PDF from Professor Lindzen's website.
  38. ↑ Preface. , in {{Harvnb|IPCC TAR WG1|2001}}
  39. ↑ a b The Great Global Warming Swindle. Programme directed by Martin Durkin, on Channel 4 on Thursday 8 March 2007. Critique by John Houghton, President, John Ray Initiative (John Ray Initiative: Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, UK)​. , p.4.
  40. ↑ a b c Trenberth K. E. (May 2001). Stronger Evidence of Human Influence on Climate: The 2001 IPCC Assessment 43 (4) (Heldref). , p.11.
  41. ↑ . , in {{Harvnb|US NRC|2001|p=22}}
  42. ↑ a b c Press flyer announcing 2007 report IPCC
  43. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
  44. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
  45. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
  46. ↑ a b c . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
  47. ↑ a b . , in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
  48. ↑ Future climate change, in {{Harvnb|UK Royal Society|2010|p=10}}
  49. ↑ a b {{Harvnb|Academia Brasileira de Ciéncias|others|2007}}
  50. ↑ {{Harvnb|Academia Brasileira de Ciéncias|others|2008}}
  51. ↑ {{Harvnb|Academia Brasileira de Ciéncias|others|2009}}
  52. ↑ *{{Harvnb|Lambeck|2007}}
    • {{Harvnb|Australian Academy of Science|no date}}
    • {{Harvnb|Australian Academy of Science|2010}}
  53. ↑ {{Harvnb|NASAC|2007}}
  54. ↑ {{Harvnb|IAMP|2010}}
  55. ↑ *Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires
    • Academy of Medical Sciences of Armenia
    • Austrian Academy of Sciences
    • Bangladesh Academy of Sciences
    • Academia Boliviana de Medicina
    • Brazilian Academy of Sciences
    • Cameroon Academy of Sciences
    • Chinese Academy of Engineering
    • Academia Nacional de Medicina de Colombia
    • Croatian Academy of Medical Sciences
    • Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
    • Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, Egypt
    • Académie Nationale de Médecine, France
    • The Delegation of the Finnish Academies of Science and Letters
    • Union of German Academies of Sciences and Humanities
    • Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Leopoldina
    • Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales de Guatemala
    • Hungarian Academy of Sciences
    • Indonesian Academy of Sciences
    • Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei
    • TWAS, academy of sciences for the developing world
    • Islamic World Academy of Sciences
    • Science Council of Japan
    • African Academy of Sciences
    • Kenya National Academy of Sciences
    • The National Academy of Sciences, Rep. of Korea
    • Akademi Sains Malaysia
    • National Academy of Medicine of Mexico
    • Nigerian Academy of Science
    • National Academy of Science and Technology, Philippines
    • Polish Academy of Sciences
    • The Caribbean Academy of Sciences
    • Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
    • Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
    • Academy of Science of South Africa
    • National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka
    • Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
    • The Tanzania Academy of Sciences
    • Thai Academy of Science and Technology
    • Turkish Academy of Sciences
    • Uganda National Academy Sciences
    • Academy of Medical Sciences, UK
    • Institute of Medicine, US NAS
  56. ↑ {{Harvnb|PBL|others|2009}}
  57. ↑ {{Harvnb|PBL|2010}}
  58. ↑ Summary, in {{Harvnb|PBL|others|2009|p=7}}
  59. ↑ a b Executive summary, in {{Harvnb|PBL|2010|p=9}}
  60. ↑ a b Summary, p.3, in {{Harvnb|US NRC|2010}}
  61. ↑ Section 3.2: Errors, in: Chapter 3: Results and discussion, in {{Harvnb|PBL|2010|pp=35–37}}
  62. ↑ a b c {{Harvnb|IPCC|2013}}
  63. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): B. Observed Changes in the Climate System, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=2}}
  64. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): B.5 Carbon and Other Biogeochemical Cycles, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=9}}
  65. ↑ a b IPCC (11 November 2013): D. Understanding the Climate System and its Recent Changes, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=13}}
  66. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): Footnote 2, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=2}}
  67. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): E. Future Global and Regional Climate Change, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=17}}
  68. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): E.8 Climate Stabilization, Climate Change Commitment and Irreversibility, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=25}}
  69. ↑ IPCC (11 November 2013): Box SPM-1, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=27}}
  70. ↑ Collins, M., et al., (7 June 2013): Section 12.3.1.3 The New Concentration Driven RCP Scenarios, and their Extensions, in: Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility (draft accepted by WG1), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013}}, p.18 (p.20 of PDF chapter)
  71. ↑ a b c d Figure 2, in {{Harvnb|Meinshausen|others|2011|p=223}}
  72. ↑ a b c IPCC (11 November 2013): Table SPM-2, in: Summary for Policymakers (finalized version), in: {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013|p=21}}
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References[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

  • IPCC TAR SYR (2001). Watson, R. T.; and the Core Writing Team (red.). Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press). (pb: {{ISBNT|0-521-01507-3}})
  • IPCC TAR WG3 (2001). Metz, B.; Davidson, O.; Swart, R.; and Pan, J. (red.). Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press). (pb: {{ISBNT|0-521-01502-2}})
  • IPCC SAR WG1 (1996). Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56433-6. (pb: {{ISBNT|0-521-56436-0}}) pdf.

Further reading[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]

External links[bewerken | brontekst bewerken]


Category:Organizations established in 1988 Category:Climate change organizations Category:Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes Category:Working groups Category:World Meteorological Organization Category:United Nations Environment Programme

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